Water quality and health risk assessment in the Gandaki river basin, central Himalaya, Nepal

Public health is at threat due to chemical contaminants in drinking water which may have direct concerns. The suitability of for primarily governed by the mineral constituents present water. study was carried out evaluate quality and associated risks Gandaki River Basin (GRB) Central Himalaya, Nepal considering hydrochemical variables such as total dissolved solids (TDS); major cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+); anions (Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, HCO3-) trace metals (As, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Ba, Cr, Li Sr) spatiotemporal levels. Water Quality Index (WQI), Health Risk Assessment (HRA), Cancer (CI) were analyzed overall GRB. results revealed that all examined within National Guidelines recommended domestic uses. Moreover, concentrations TDS, ions, showed significant seasonality WQI values found be 36.38, 23.77, 30.36 pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, respectively indicating better monsoon season. Additionally, CI analysis selected As, Cr Pb indicated relatively low cancer risk river during seasons. hazard quotient (HQ) dermal elements < 1, signifying little or no adverse effects via a path, while HQ ingestion Li, Sr, Zn >1 seasons their possible path. This provides useful database suggests regular assessment and, also appropriate policy formulations safeguarding bodies Himalayas.